Mechanical Drawing

T HE approach to this subject should be made as easy and as interesting as possible. The child mind has to be led gradually up to the neatness and accuracy inseparable from mechanical drawing. Perhaps the first instrument to begin with should be the ruler, which will need explanation from the teacher, who expounds what the divisions are, and how to use them. The use is best illustrated by allowing the class to measure their pens and pencils, pieces of string, coloured paper, etc., one dimension only, after which, two dimensions; post-cards, envelopes, slates, book-covers, lids of boxes or anything handy. Another interesting lesson may be given by allowing the class to make a ruler of their own from strips of paper. A halfpenny is exactly 1 inch in diameter, and if one is placed on a strip of paper the inch may be marked and the paper folded so that the creases mark the inches. By folding again half-inches may be indicated, and a further fold will give quarter-inches, and so a serviceable ruler may be made. This can be used in the manner suggested for the ruler.

The next stage is drawing straight lines in various directions, after which two points may be placed at a convenient distance and a line drawn between, followed by measured drawings of post-cards, envelopes, etc.; then larger objects such as slates, frames, book-covers drawn to scale.

A lesson on the use of T square and set squares should follow and parallel lines drawn vertical, horizontal, and at angles of 45°, 60°, and 30°. The teacher points out the fact that one angle of the square is a right angle or 90°, and the other two angles make 90° between them; it will thus be easily seen that in the 45° square, the two angles being equal will necessarily be half of 90°. The 60° set square is explained in a similar manner.

The compass is now introduced and the fact that the circumference of a circle is everywhere equidistant from the centre. Here again a slip of paper is useful. If a number of holes are perforated at one end and a pin stuck through the other into the drawing paper, a pencil may be inserted into the holes perforated and circles drawn. This serves to impress the fact that the circumference of the circle is equidistant from the centre. Other facts connected with the circle should be dealt with; the radius (distance from centre), diameter (width from side to side, or two radii), arc (any part of circumference), segment (part of circle bounded by arc and chord), semi-circle (half-circle), and so on. There are many books on Geometry available; these notes are merely intended to serve as an introduction. Plate 10 indicates a few exercises that might follow when the instruments are understood and some facility in handling has been acquired. Sub-division of lines and angles, construction of simple figures, concentric and eccentric circles, inscribed circles, etc. Pattern drawing would follow upon this. Plate 11 illustrates a few simple ones; the teacher can easily evolve a number of others, and also allow the pupil to do so. Many geometric patterns can be obtained from linoleums, wallpapers, and other designs, whilst quite a number of books are available from which to draw inspiration.

Nature Study

Nature affords an endless variety of form and colour from which to choose. In introducing this subject each child might be given a simple leaf, fruit, vegetable, or shell, and told to draw it, allowing each pupil to do it in his own way. Mass drawing with crayon or brush is best for first lessons. After this attempt the teacher, by means of questions, leads to a truer perception of shape and detail. Another method is to point out some essential features before the drawing is commenced. But whatever method is adopted it should be borne in mind that the end in view is to teach the child to see, and to see he must think. It is better to give a separate object to each child, for then other senses than sight are brought into play, and the knowledge thus gained is rendered more exact and permanent by the attempt made to draw it. The child will, at first, only be able to express some part of the truth, the amount increasing with the development of the vision and the power of expression. Give the pupil a cherry and his first attempt will probably produce a flat circular mass. The teacher inquires if nothing more can be seen, which inquiry might elicit "the stalk." A further question may lead to a darkening of one side and the adding of light to the other, so by questioning the facts become apparent, and the power of expression grows pari passu  with the vision.

As before stated, in these early lessons where detail cannot be expected, chalk, crayon, or direct brush work is most suitable. For variety, the shapes drawn can be cut with a penknife or scissors and mounted on paper of a suitable colour. White flowers on brown paper, green leaves on white are effective, and the interest thus given to the lesson is well worth the teacher's trouble. Care is necessary in the selection of objects for study, for, on the one hand, if they are too easy, the pupil loses interest, whereas, on the other, if too difficult, or if too much is expected, he loses confidence. As control of the hand increases, more careful studies with the pencil may be attempted, and even a light wash of colour added. When this stage is reached more accurate rendering of detail must be insisted upon. There will always be a tendency to scamp joints, serrations, veins, and other difficult parts. This the teacher has to watch, and should insist upon an effort being made to overcome these difficulties. This will result in increased facility and power of concentration. In pencil work, variety in the line helps to express the characteristics of a plant. The pencil (really a very sympathetic implement) is capable of producing tones varying from a velvety black to a delicate tender grey. The whole range is at the command of the draughtsman, and the power of expression depends upon the ability to use it. A strong line for the contour of a leaf (varied to suggest the undulations of the edge) with more delicate lines for veins and inner markings, and sharp dark touches at the joints, all help to give life to the drawing. The foreshortening and curvature of leaves, of which a few examples are given on Plate 13, will afford excellent practice. Flowers too are best expressed by a line of uneven quality. A strong varied line for the contours, with delicate markings at the petals, and sharp sparkling touches on pistils and stamens, all make for charm and vitality.

The pen and brush are both useful for making studies. They lead to precision of treatment, and a surer handling. The same object treated in different media helps to bring out its characteristic features, form, colour, light and shade, texture, etc. Pupils should occasionally be allowed to bring their own objects for study; this encourages them to think and to use their eyes in the selection of the object. The interest thus aroused is naturally far greater than when the object is placed before them in class. The teacher will probably find that young children will be more strongly influenced in their choice by the colour of an object than by its form. The range of natural objects suitable for study is very wide, and material can easily be found for all classes; from the youngest child to the most advanced art student. It is useless to suggest the objects that should be used for the first standard, second standard, and so on; the teacher is always the best judge in such matters. Pupils vary considerably, and again, what one teacher would consider suitable another would ignore. But in the varieties of flowers, leaves, buds, twigs, fruits, vegetables, fungi, seaweed, birds, animals, etc., there is sufficient material for all tastes and requirements. Numerous plant, bird, animal, and other studies of natural form are given in the Plates 12 to 50. The majority of the plant studies are accompanied by decorative treatments of leaf and flower. Plates 14, 19, 20, 22, 23, 24, 27, 28, 29, 32, 33, 35, and 40. This method of treatment should be encouraged, for, apart from its value in design, the drawings produced are typical of the plant. Recognition of the type aids in the appreciation of its form, and also of any variation that might occur. Flowers properly grown will generally fit into geometric shapes, e.g.,  the Syringa, Clematis, and Fuchsia into a square, Plates 22 and 34; Columbine into a regular pentagon, Plate 24; Daffodil into a regular hexagon, and so on. Those blossoms which most nearly approach the geometric shape, i.e.,  in which the petals are equally grown, may be accepted as the basic type, and used as a standard. Not only is this type of analysis useful in design, and for acquiring a knowledge of the plant, but it is a valuable mental exercise as well. If the pupil is encouraged to make marginal studies of typical leaves, flowers, joints, etc., before attempting the growing plant as a whole, it will assist him in noting any variation that occurs, and also in rendering truthfully the foreshortened parts.

Mass Drawing and Silhouette

At the best, outline is an arbitrary method, for objects are visible to us as one colour upon another, or as a tone upon a tone. There is an edge of colour or an edge of tone, but never an outline. So for expressing form, mass drawing affords a much truer and simpler method than outline. It is most suitable for early lessons, as the child can realise better the shape of a colour mass than the shape bounded by an outline. Crayon, chalk, and brush, are all good for this purpose. Natural and common objects afford good subjects for mass treatment, and as the mind is solely occupied with contour and proportion, it affords excellent practice in the expression of form. (See Plates 53 to 57.)

Trees

Lessons of absorbing interest can be based on trees. The life-history of a tree is not only interesting but affords valuable opportunities for practice in drawing, as studies of the various parts at different stages of development may be made to illustrate the growth.

The seed which matures in the autumn falls into the earth, takes root, sends forth fibres into the soil and an upward tending shoot, which steadily grows from year to year until, in time, the tree attains perfection. From the first shoot which grows from the seed, others branch off annually, each with its group of leaves. When the leaves fall in autumn, buds are left behind them, well protected against the rigours of winter, to await the genial spring. Some of these buds produce new shoots, and some, less fortunate, remain abortive. Each year brings its quota of fresh shoots which spring from the twigs formed from the shoots of the previous year, and as they multiply the main ones grow in bulk, the first one which sprang from the seed becoming the trunk, and others of the earlier shoots becoming the main branches; and so, given favourable conditions, the plant grows and spreads until in the fulness of time it becomes that wonderful piece of natural architecture, a tree. Its roots burrow deeply into the soil, whilst above the desire of all its parts is to stretch upwards towards the light, which desire is responsible for the bareness of the trunk in the later stages of the tree. For as the leaf-bearing shoots spread above, they intercept the light, and the lower boughs, failing to receive the life-giving rays, drop away, leaving the main stem bare. This dropping away of the branches increases the uninterrupted length of the trunk, and each year adds to its girth. The leaves extract nourishment from the atmosphere, and the roots obtain the necessary mineral elements from the earth. Spring sees the tree put forth flowers, the summer sun turns them into autumn fruits and seeds, which lie dormant during the winter, to shoot up into new plants with the returning spring. And so it proceeds in an endless cycle, for, as Emerson says: "Nature is an endless combination and repetition of a very few laws. She hums the old well-known air through innumerable variations."

Some trees are wind pollinated, others rely upon bees, butterflies, and insects to perform this duty, whilst some are capable of self-fertilisation.

The "complete" flower is composed of "stamens" (male organs), "pistil" (female organs), and a leafy envelope for their protection. This envelope consists of the "calyx," usually formed of separate green leaves called "sepals" springing from the stalk; the "corolla" or "petals," often brightly coloured, and arranged within the calyx. Inside this envelope come the stamens, each consisting of a stalk (filament) and a head (anther) which contains the pollen. The centre is occupied by the pistil, the base of which is the ovary, containing the ovules which develop into seeds after being fertilised by the pollen. At the apex of the ovary is the "stigma" which receives the pollen and then transfers it to the ovules or eggs. The calyx and corolla are usually composed of five sepals and five petals, though four is also a fairly common number. As may be gathered from the above brief description the "complete" flower contains within itself both pollen and ovules, the fertilising medium and the egg capable of being fertilised. It is, therefore, possible in such trees as produce these complete flowers, for self-fertilisation to take place, but it is of rare occurrence, as cross-fertilisation is more beneficial to the species. It is interesting to note how Nature guards against self-fertilisation even when she gives the complete organs of reproduction to the one flower. This she does in some cases by maturing the stigma before the pollen is ripe, and in others by dispersing the ripened pollen before the stigma is matured. When a flower contains within itself both male and female organs it is termed "bisexual," when one flower contains the male and a separate one the female organs it is "unisexual." Some species bear both male and female (unisexual) flowers on the same tree, others bear male and female on separate trees, others again will bear male on one tree, female on another, and bisexual blossoms on a third. Occasionally the same tree will bear all three types of flower, male, female, and bisexual, and is aptly termed polygamous. Trees which are wind-pollinated produce a large quantity of pollen, for, being carried by the wind, but a comparatively small proportion will reach the female organs of other blossoms. The petals of these flowers are not so brightly coloured or sweet-scented as are those which rely upon insects for pollination. The colours and scents of the latter have been adopted to attract insects, who, passing from flower to flower and tree to tree in search of honey, perform the office of fertilising agents. Many of these tree blossoms are of exquisite beauty, as apple, pear, cherry, horse-chestnut, hawthorn, cornel, almond, plum, rowan, blackthorn, and guelder rose. Others are difficult to recognise as flowers, the birch, oak, willow, alder, hazel, and sweet chestnut being of this type.

The fruits which follow the blossoms are also worthy of study, as, like the blossoms, many of them are beautiful in shape and colour. The red berries of yew, holly, rowan, hawthorn, and wild-rose; the winged seeds of maple, sycamore, ash, lime, and hornbeam; the hairy seeds of willows and poplars; the cones of pine, spruce, larch, and fir, all provide exquisite form and colour for the student. Plate 51 shows the sycamore with winged seeds, buds, both resting and active, flowers, a leaf, bark, and the tree as it appears in winter and summer. There is an inexhaustible store of material for the teacher and student in the various species and component parts of trees, whilst the artist could hardly do without them, especially if he is a landscape painter. To make a series of studies at different seasons, and so to trace the development of the various portions, not only affords excellent practice in drawing but is fascinating exercise as well. The wonderful scale patterns in the buds, the diversity in the forms of the leaves, the varieties in the branching, the massing of the foliage, the forms and colours of blossom and fruit, the difference between the smooth bark of the young tree, and the scarred surface of the older one—what a store of material is here afforded for the draughtsman! The sycamore commences flowering when between twenty and thirty years of age. The sepals and petals are both green in colour, hence the blossom is not particularly conspicuous. Despite this, however, it relies upon insects for pollination. The flowers are male and female (unisexual). Its leaves are "opposite" (in pairs, one on either side of the stem) and "palmate." The seeds are winged; the bark remains smooth for a long time, but ultimately becomes rough and breaks off in scales. The tree attains a height of sixty feet, and has a crown of variable form. Plate 52 illustrates some typical tree forms.

Brush-Work

Of all the implements at the artist's command the brush is easily the best. Flexible and easy to handle, no other tool lends itself so sympathetically to the expression of thought and feeling. The teacher will do well to introduce the brush quite early into the drawing course for such exercises as mass drawing and brush-work. Each child should be provided with two or three brushes of good quality. Sable is undoubtedly the best, but fitch and Siberian hair are good substitutes. Camel hair is too limp for this purpose, having a tendency to remain at an awkward angle instead of springing back into line with the handle. Nos. 3, 5, and 6 are useful sizes. The pupils should be taught to take care of their brushes, and to bring to a point after each lesson, when they might be stood in a jar, handles down, to preserve the points. Tube colours are the most convenient and may be squeezed into the saucers as required by the teacher. To start with chrome yellow, Prussian blue, and crimson lake are enough. The range of tints obtainable from these three is described in the section on colour. For demonstration the instructor will need a large sable, Siberian, or soft hog-hair brush, well pointed. The colour must be fairly thick or it will run, as the teacher needs to have his paper vertical in order to be seen by the pupils. Whiting is useful for blackboard work.

The first exercises will consist of brush strokes. A fully charged brush applied to the paper gives a characteristic blob. Variation in the amount of pressure will produce a thick or thin stroke. These strokes or blobs placed in vertical, horizontal, and oblique directions form the first exercise. Plate 53. When facility of handling has been acquired, the blobs may be combined to produce flower-forms, leaf-forms, buds, shells, and later, pattern. The brush might with advantage be used far more in the teaching of drawing than it is. The pupil learns that once a stroke is on the paper it cannot be erased like pencil; he consequently thinks a little more before applying it, and ultimately acquires a more decisive, direct method of drawing. After a few preliminary practices in handling the brush, a simple spray of privet, laurel, or such like leaves might be attempted in direct brush-drawing. The midribs may be suggested by leaving a white line, and if the attention is concentrated on the edge nearest the rib instead of the outside curve, it will be found much simpler. Plate 55. Straight lines in various directions followed by squares, rectangles, and triangles are also excellent practice. Flower, animal, bird, in fact all natural forms lend themselves readily to this method of treatment. Plates 20, 25, 28, 33, 35, 40, 43, 44, 45, 49, and 50. The silhouette treatment peculiar to brush-work is invaluable for the study of form. The whole attention is concentrated on the contour and the shape bounded by it. The sharp contrast between this and the ground to which it is applied, renders the form clearly visible and easy to grasp. No light and shade or surface modelling distracts the attention; it is an exercise in pure form. Its decorative possibilities are enormous. Plates 53 to 57. When some facility in handling the brush has been acquired, and the pupils have been taught the properties of colour, an attempt should be made at painting the objects in their natural tints. This involves the matching of colour. Leaves, flowers, shells, butterflies, etc., form useful subjects. A light but careful pencil sketch is first made, and the colours mixed, matching them as closely as possible to the corresponding colours in the example. Two or three brushes are necessary, and colours should be applied as directly as possible, using plenty of water. If they are floated on the paper and allowed to run together, hard edges are avoided and a more brilliant transparent effect is obtained than by putting the washes on separately after allowing the previous ones to dry. A further opportunity occurs here for teaching the children to see colour. The child mind is not very sensitive to the more delicate tints, but strongly drawn towards the primary colours. The teacher should endeavour to lead the pupil to see the shades that enter into, and modify the predominating colour. A leaf, though its local colour is green, usually has blue and grey; and even purple and brown in its make up. This is explained by the fact that the surface of the leaf is more or less reflectory so that the colours of the sky and surrounding objects modify the green. This applies to practically all objects; a red vase will often exhibit purple, orange, and other tints, besides the dominant red. The remarks on harmony in the section on colour also apply in painting from nature. Despite the fact that colour appeals so strongly to children, and that they are more easily influenced by it than by form, it is difficult to teach them to discriminate between the delicate tints, but when pointed out, they soon learn to distinguish them.

For brush drawing pure and simple, the Japanese stand pre-eminent. A few examples of their work hung in the schoolroom would be useful to illustrate the possibilities of the medium, and also to familiarise the pupils with the delicate schemes of colour, and the fine decorative quality of Japanese brush-work. Environment has a tremendous influence on the growing mind, so the mere presence of such things is bound to have a refining effect upon the scholar seeing them every day in school. Plate 53 shows typical brush strokes and a few natural forms evolved from them. Plates 53 to 57 show further examples of natural and conventional forms suitable for brush-work.