Back Matter

Concluding Note

We have come to the end of the study that we set out to make. Step by step, we have marked the evolution of modern painting, from the Byzantine traditions which prevailed before Cimabue down to the latest possibilities introduced by the pointilliste  method of Monet.

We have made the acquaintance of a majority of the greatest artists; of those who, being themselves men of originality, exercised a wide influence on others. In studying their points of view, and their methods of rendering what they saw in the way they felt it, we have gained a general insight into pictorial methods and motives, that will enable us to appreciate the infinite varieties of the same as they appear in other artists.

Turn by turn, we have visited different countries, according as the art of painting flourished in them simultaneously, or as it declined in one and reappeared with vigor in another. And, doing so, we have found that the manifestations of art have varied in response to the racial and temporary conditions of each country; and, while we have not attempted to explain genius as the result of these, we have examined how they influenced it.

We have seen how one impulse of movement followed another; all of them involving truth, but none monopolizing the whole truth; in fact, that the manifestations and possibilities of painting are wide and various as human nature. From this study, also, we should have discovered that the enjoyment to be derived from pictures is not only the satisfaction of our own predilections, of what most appeals to ourselves individually, but the interest to be gained from studying pictures as the record of the feeling and experience of other minds.

We have gained a fairly comprehensive bird's-eye view of the whole field of painting; sufficient, if our study must stop here, to enable us to recognize the landmarks of the subject; but offering, if we are able to step down and pursue the study in detail, a convenient groundwork for investigation.

It is not by the much, unavoidably omitted, that I beg the usefulness of this book may be judged, but by the value of what is included.

Orienta Point,

          Mamaroneck, N. Y.

Parallel Chronology of Painters Included

A Brief Bibliography of Books on Art Readily Procurable

Italian Schools. —Berenson, Bernard: The Florentine Painters of the Renaissance; The Venetian Painters of the Renaissance; The Central Italian Painters of the Renaissance (New York, 1897). Blashfield, E.H. and E. W.: Italian Cities (New York, 1900). Brinton, S.: Renaissance in Italian Art (London, 1898). Crowe, J. A., and Cavalcaselle, G. B.: History of Painting in Italy (London, 1866). Morelli, G.: Italian Painters. Translated by C. J. Ffoulkes (London, 1892-1893). Ruskin, John: Mornings in Florence (Orpington, 1875); Modern Painters (London, 1846, 1860). Symonds, J. A.: Renaissance in Italy (London, 1875); Sketches and Studies in Italy and Greece (London, 1874). Vasari, G.: Lives of the Painters. Edited by E. H. and E. W. Blashfield and A. A. Hopkins (New York, 1897). Modern Painters. Muther, R. (See General Reference.) Willard, A. R.: History of Modern Italian Art (New York, 1900).

Flemish School. —Fromentin, E.: Les Maitres d'Autrefois (Paris, 1876). Kugler, F. T.: Handbook of Painting: The German, Flemish, and Dutch Schools. Remodeled by Dr. Waagen, revised and in part rewritten by J. A. Crowe (London, 1874). Van Dyke, J. C.: Old Dutch and Flemish Masters. Engravings by Timothy Cole (New York, 1895). Modern Painters. Muther, R. (See General Reference.)

German School. —Alexandre, A.: Histoire populaire de la peinture: École Allemande (Paris, 1895). Colvin, A.: Dürer (Encyclopmdia Britannica, Edinburgh, 1883). Kugler, F. T.: Handbook of Painting: The German, Flemish, and Dutch Schools. Revised by J. A. Crowe (London, 1874). Woltman, A.: Holbein and his Time. Translated by F. E. Bunnett (London, 1872). Modern Painters. Muther, R.

Dutch School. —Bode, W.: Studien zur Geschichte der holländischen Malerei (Brunswick, 1883); Rembrandt (Paris, 1898); Franz Hals and seine Schule (Leipsic, 1871). Fromentin, E.: Les Maîtres d'Autrefois (Paris, 1876). Gower, R.: Guide to Public and Private Galleries of Holland and Belgium (London, 1875). Kugler, F. T.: Handbook of Painting: The German, Flemish, and Dutch Schools. Revised by J. A. Crowe (London, 1874). Van Dyke, J. C.: Old Dutch and Flemish Masters. Engravings by Timothy Cole (New York, 1895). Modern Painters. Muther, R.

Spanish School. —Ford, R.: Handbook for Spain (London, 1855). Justi, C.: Velasquez and his Times. Translated by A. H. Keane (London and Philadelphia, 1889). Stevenson, R. A. M.: The Art of Velasquez (London, 1895). Stirling-Maxwell, Sir W.: Annals of the Artists of Spain (London, 1848); Velasquez and his Works (London, 1855). Muther, R. (See General Reference.)

French School. —Alexandre, A.: Histoire populaire de la peinture: École Française (Paris, 1893). Berger, G.: L'École française de peinture (Paris, 1879). Blanc, C.: Les artistes de mon temps (Paris, 1879). Brownell, W. C. (New York, 1901). Dilke, Lady: French Painters of the Eighteenth Century (London, 1899). Duret, Théodore: Les peintres impressionistes (Paris, 1879); Histoire d'Édouard Monet (Paris, 1902). Gautier, T.: L'Art moderne; Romanticism. Goncourt, E. and J. de: L'Art du XVIII^me siècle (Paris, 1881-1882). Guibal: Eloge de Poussin (Paris, 1783). Moore, G.: Modern Painting (New York, 1893). Pater, Walter: Imaginary Portraits; A Prince of Court Painters (Watteau) (London, 1887). Sensier, Théodore: Rousseau (Paris, 1872); Life and Works of J. F. Millet (Paris, 1881). Stranahan, C. H.: History of French Painting (New York, 1895).

English School. —Armstrong, Sir W.: Gainsborough and his Place in English Art (New York, 1898). Bate, P. H.: English PreRaphaelite Painters (London, 1899). Chesneau, E.: The English School of Painting (London, 1885). Macco11, D. S.: Nineteenth Century Art (Glasgow, 1902). Phillips, C.: Sir Joshua Reynolds (London, 1891). Redgrave, S.: A Century of Painters of the English School (London, 1890). Rossetti, W. M.: Ruskin, Rossetti; Pre-Raphaelitism (London, 1899). Wedmore, F.: Studies in English Art (London, 1876); Masters of Genre Painting (London, 1880). Muther, R. (See General Reference.)

Japanese Art. —Amsden, Dora: Impressions of Ukiyo-ye (San Francisco, 1905). Fenollosa, F. E.: Review of the Chapter on Painting in "L'Art Japonais," 1885. Gouse, Louis: L'Art Japonais (Paris, 1883). Hearn, Lafcadio: Kokoro (Boston, 1896). Okakura-Kakuzo: Ideals of the East (New York, 1904). Muther, R. (See General Reference.)

General Reference. —Bryan's Dictionary of Painters (New York, 1902). Champlin, T. D., Jr., and Perkins, Charles C.: Cyclopedia of Painters and Paintings (New York, 1887). Cox, Kenyon: Old Masters and New. La Farge, John: Great Masters of Painting. Lubke's History of Art. Translated by Clarence Cook. Masters in Art (Boston). Muther, R.: History of Modern Painting (New York, 1896). Van Dyke, J. C.: History of Painting; Art for Art's Sake; How to Judge of a Picture. Woltmann and Woermann: History of Painting.

American Painting. —American Art Review. Caffin, C. H.: American Masters of Painting. Hartmann, S.: History of American Art (Boston, 1902). Isham, Samuel: History of American Painting. (In press.) Mason: Life and Works of Gilbert Stuart. Tuckerman: Book of the Artists.

Glossary of Terms

Abstract: opposed to Concrete  (q.v. ); viewed apart from concrete form; e.g., the abstract beauty of a line;  where the line not only serves to inclose a form but has an independent beauty of its own (66). So also, abstract beauty of color,  where color is independently a source of esthetic enjoyment, apart from the object to which it may belong. So, also, music is the most abstract of the arts,  because it is entirely withdrawn from the concrete and appeals directly to the esthetic sense, and thence to the imagination (451, 452). For further remarks on abstract, see Concrete.

Academic: having the qualities that characterize the official standards of excellence maintained by the Academy of Painting and Sculpture, founded in France by Louis XIV. These have varied from time to time in details, but are based upon a preference for form over color; and upon an idealization of form, in imitation of the purity of antique sculpture. Hence the synonym Classic.  Perfection of line and form is aimed at in preference to individuality and character.

Action: the gesture or attitude of a figure, expressive of character or sentiment. See Expression, Movement.

Æsthetic. See Esthetic.

Analysis: opposed to Synthesis  (q.v. ); the process of distinguishing between and studying separately the ingredients of an object. Thus the analysis of an elm involves an examination of its stem, the spread of its branches, the way in which the smaller are attached to the larger and the latter to the stein, the character of the foliage both in masses and in individual leaves, the effect upon the color and form of the foliage under the action of sunlight or of wind, and so on. Most of the great artists have trained themselves at first by severe analysis, after which they render their subject by means of synthesis. Having learned to put in, they become learned in leaving out.

Architectonic: literally, of or pertaining to construction; having the qualities of form and structure deliberately built up to produce a desired effect upon the imagination: e.g., the architectonics of poetry —that is to say, the form and structure of versification. The architectonics of a picture,  in allusion to the formal arrangement of its lines and masses, its full and empty spaces  (q.v. ); more particularly of a composition planned to occupy and conform to a given space in connection with architecture—a mural painting  (q.v. ).

Arrangement: a principle of composition whereby the artist, having selected from a variety of details the ones best adapted to his conception of the subject, arranges them, with deliberate intent, to produce a certain impression on the spectator (99 of seq.). See Selection.

Art: by its derivation from a Greek word, "to fit," means primarily the fitting of form to an idea.

Art for art's sake: a catchword adopted in the last quarter of the nineteenth century by the followers of Manet, who asserted that the first requisite of a painter was to be able to paint. They began by saying that the subject of a picture was of little importance, the main thing for the artist being an opportunity of artistic expression; and, in their disgust of the, so-called, story-telling picture, in which considerations of painting as painting are sacrificed to mere attractiveness of subject, ended by asserting that subject was of no importance at all. Now that the dust of argument is settled, it has established the truth that, as Professor John C. Van Dyke says, "the art of a picture is not in the subject but in the manner of presenting it."

Articulation: the art of joining together; for example, of correctly joining the branches of a tree to its trunk, the leaves to the branches, the flower and leaves to the stalk, and the latter to the stem; the accurate rendering of the joints or articulations of the human body. Both the actor and the painter recognize the fact that the joints are the seats of expression.

Atmosphere. The world, out of doors and indoors, is filled with air, more or less illumined with light. It surrounds every object, affecting both their shape and color. The outlines even of objects near to us are seldom sharp, and become more blurred and indistinct as the objects lie further from the eye. The colors, too, as they recede, become grayer in appearance—seen, as it were, through intervening veils of atmosphere. Many painters represent the figures and objects with uniform sharpness and distinctness; there is no suggestion of atmosphere in their pictures. Others, however, by rendering the effect of lighted atmosphere upon the outlines and colors of the objects (see Values ), make them appear to be surrounded, as in nature, by an envelope  of lighted air, and to occupy their proper plane in the depth of atmosphere. Moreover, it is to be noted that, as atmosphere varies according to time of day, locality, and season, it becomes to our imagination a source of expression in nature.

Breadth and simplicity: the results of a painter's ability to see the large significance of things; to view his subject, as it were from afar off so that it is seen apart from its littlenesses of detail in its essential character. When a painter can so stand back from his subject and see it in this broad, general way, and then by simple, effective brushwork suggest to ns a similarly broad comprehension of its essential character, we speak of the breadth and simplicity of his work. See Hals, 195 et seq.

Chiaroscuro: derived from Italian chiaro = clear, + oscuro = obscure; French equivalent, clair-obscur;  English, light and shade. The distribution in a picture of light and shade, introduced for one or more purposes: (1) the functional use, to suggest the modeling of form, the raised parts catching various quantities of light and the depressed being in various degrees of shadow; (2) the decorative use, to produce an agreeable pattern by a contrast of lights and darks; (3) the expressional use, to arouse by such variety an appeal to our emotions. As a method of modeling it is less true to nature than modeling by means of a rendering of the values (q.v. ); as a method of emotional expression, when used, for example, by Rembrandt, who made his lights emerge from a bath of darkness, or by Rubens in his Descent from the Cross,  its mingling of clearness and mystery has a wonderful effect upon the imagination.

Classic. See Academic.

Colorist: one who uses color not merely to increase the reality of appearances in his picture, but as a means of emotional expression. He thinks and feels in color, conceives his subject as an arrangement not so much of form as of color, and moves us by his color-harmonies, as a musician by his harmonies of sound.

Colors, cold and warm: yellow suggests the color of sunlight and flames, and red the glow of a fire and of sunlight seen through moist atmosphere; we associate with these colors and with their union, orange, the idea of warmth. On the other hand, blue suggests the color of the ocean, of the sky after rain, and of the evening sky in the upper part removed from the sunset glow, and when blended with yellow, it is the cooling ingredient in the resultant green. We associate with blue the idea of coolness. Moreover, science, as well as the observation of artists, has proved that in bright sunlight the tint of shadows contains blue. See Reynolds's doctrine about cold and warm colors, 274.

Composition: literally, the placing together of parts to produce a whole; in art, the parts must be harmoniously related to one another and to the whole, and the latter must be distinguished by balance and unity. It involves a twofold process of selection and arrangement: the selection of parts best suited to one another and to the whole, and the arrangement of them so as to produce by the actual direction and character of the lines and by the disposition of the masses and spaces an impression upon the esthetic sense, and, in higher works of arts, upon the imagination. It cannot be too thoroughly understood that composition is the structural basis of painting, as it is of poetry and of music; and that its appeal to sense or imagination is an abstract one—that is to say, primarily independent of the subject-matter. See 98 et seq.

Concrete: opposed to Abstract;  viewed as existing in connection with objects and substances. Thus the picture of a landscape conveys a concrete impression of trees, water, sky, ground, etc., and may do no more. On the other hand, it may stimulate an abstract impression, for example, of exquisite restfulness, so that in the enjoyment of this the actual shapes and appearances of objects and substances, perhaps even their very existence in the picture, may be forgotten. Again, a composition so harmoniously balanced and unified, such as that of Raphael's Disputà,  may so captivate the imagination that it is only upon a second visit one becomes conscious of the concrete facts of the figures and what they represent. Remember, the abstract is as much a fact to the spirit and the imagination as the concrete is to the senses of sight and touch. See Abstract.

Construction: the act or result of building up a structure—for example, the construction of the human figure, so that we are made to realize beneath the flesh its framework of bones and joints and muscles. In this sense we speak of the figure being good or faulty in construction. Similarly we examine the construction of a landscape: has the painter made us realize the firm earth or rocky foundation beneath the grass of a meadow; the special character of stoutness or suppleness in trees and plant forms; the actual quality of construction in waves and clouds, and so on In a picture, as in a building, it is not the outside appearance which first meets the eye that is of chief importance, but the underlying, embedded, construction.

Contour: inclosing forms; e.g., contour lines of the figure.

Convention, Conventionalization. If we grant, for example, that a painter cannot represent absolutely all the leaves on a tree or all the hairs in a man's beard, it follows he must adopt some method of suggesting to us the appearance of the mass of leaves or hairs. He adopts some convention of representing it, some arrangement which our memory and experience will immediately interpret to mean a mass of leaves or hairs. It is to be noted that the artist takes advantage of memories and experiences, which in a general way we share with him, so that by association of ideas his convention is intelligible to us. But if the convention—as, for example, the one employed by the Japanese to suggest the human mouth—is founded upon memories and experiences foreign to our own, we shall probably find it not immediately intelligible.

Distemper: a medium of painting used before the development of oil-paints. The color ingredient was ground in water, and in order to give it substance,—or, as the artists say, "body,"—so that it would not sink too much into an absorbent material like canvas, and to fix it so that it would not, when dry, rub off a hard one like wood, white of egg or some other glutinous ingredient was stirred in. As a medium of picture-painting it was superseded by oil-painting, but, with glue as a medium, is still used by scene-painters and, under the name of calcimine, by house-decorators.

Drawing: the manner of representing objects on a flat surface; (1) specifically, as contrasted with painting, by means of pencil, pen, or crayon; (2) in a general sense, including painting, referring to the quality of the representation: e.g., the drawing of that figure is good; the other is weak in drawing.

Elemental: of or pertaining to first principles; hence based upon what is fundamental and essential, unimpaired by the details of individual differences. Such, for example, was the character of Millet's drawing, 251.

Elusive, Elusiveness: the suggestion, in a work of art, of what eludes the grasp of the eye; e.g., the elusive quality of Velasquez's contour line,  partly definite, partly melting into indefiniteness, because he rendered the blurring effect of light creeping round their edges (192). Also the suggestion of what even eludes the grasp of the imagination; thus Leonardo (121, 122) and Hashimoto Gaho (477) essayed to suggest the mystery of humanity and nature.

Engraving: (1) the process of cutting a picture into steel or copper, or out of wood; (2) the result so obtained. It is to be observed that in the ease of steel or copper the picture is below the surface of the material, and the ink is forced by a roller into the grooves, out of which, in the process of printing, it is sucked up by the damp paper driven down into the grooves under great pressure. On the other hand, in wood-engraving the picture stands up above the rest of the block, just as type is raised; the ink adheres to the raised parts, and the paper, as in printing from type, receives the impression. The depressed kind of printing is sometimes called intaglio;  the raised, relievo  or cameo.

Esthetic: literally, able to be apprehended by the senses; hence, with special meaning, of or belonging to an appreciation of the beautiful: e.g., the esthetic taste.

Etching. This, like steel- and copper-engraving, is (1) a process; (2) the result of an intaglio printing, only that the lines of the picture instead of being graved with a "burin" are bitten into the copper by acid. The copper plate having been covered with a thin layer of melted wax and asphaltum and blackened with lamp-smoke, the artist draws his picture on it with a needle or similar instrument. This easily furrows its way through the soft wax, and discloses, wherever there is a line, the bright copper. The plate is then plunged into a bath of nitric acid, which bites into the exposed lines, leaving the wax-covered portions intact. Then, the wax having been removed, ink is rolled into the grooves and a print taken, as in steel- or copper-engraving. This is the bare statement of a process which involves many modifications, and which is distinguished from that of engraving on steel or copper by the greater freedom of drawing which it permits and by the qualities of the line and tone obtained; for the action of the acid being somewhat uneven, the line in etching is more sensitive, and the "blacks" can be made richer in tone than is possible in line-engraving.

Expression: the revelation of character and sentiment in a work of art. Thus we speak of the expression of a figure,  meaning that its pose and gesture are significant of character and that there is a suggestion in the figure of the life-spirit which animates it. Similarly we may speak of the expression of a landscape,  referring to the way in which the artist has expressed the character of rocks and trees, water, and so forth, or to the way in which he has made the landscape interpret a mood of feeling, either his own or one that he conceives as existing in nature itself.

Expressional: of or pertaining to expression; e.g., the expressional use of line and color—that is to say, their use not only for the purpose of representing the appearances of objects, but also as an independent source of appeal to the emotions. See Abstract.

Feeling: (1) a sympathetic comprehension; e.g., a feeling for form,  implying both a correct observation of form and also an appreciation of its characteristic qualities. Similarly, a feeling for light and atmosphere.  (2) The evidence of sympathetic comprehension; e.g., the figure is excellent in feeling.  (3) As an equivalent for Sentiment  (q.v. ).

Flat painting: where the color is laid on with little or no indication of modeling by means of Chiaroscuro  (q.v. ).

Fore-shortening: the art of representing on a plane surface in true perspective objects as they appear to the eye, especially those objects or parts of objects which extend toward the spectator on a line between his eyes and the center of the object.

Fresco: literally, "fresh"; painting in water-color upon the still damp plaster of a wall, so that the plaster and the painting dry together and become inseparable. The process is more fully described, p. 147.

Full and empty spaces: used of composition, as a convenient term to distinguish those forms in the design which are of primary importance to the delineation of the subject, from those forms or open spaces which are of subsidiary importance to the subject and are introduced chiefly to complete the harmony and balanoe of the composition. (See p. 100.) That the empty spaces may also be of importance to the subject, see "space-composition," p. 80.

Generalization: the process of discovering and rendering the essentials of a subject, so as to represent a summary of its salient characteristics.

Genre: a kind of picture representing ordinary in-door and out-door life; especially the Dutch pictures of the seventeenth century, which depicted domestic scenes and the pastimes of the peasants. It is to be noted that while these were the subject of the picture the design of the Dutch artists was not to illustrate  them, but to make them the basis of a pictorial  treatment (q.v. ).

Gesture: literally, the mode of carrying; the carriage of a figure or of a part of it, as the head, the arm, or hand, expressive of character or sentiment. Practically the equivalent of Action  (q.v. ). See Movement.

Glazes: thin layers of transparent color brushed over the whole or parts of a picture in its final stages to produce a desired tone  (q.v. ).

Grand style: an imposing method of composition, embodying elevated feeling, brought to perfection by the great Italians of the Renaissance (102). Long after the death of Tiutoretto, the last of the great Italians, its influence continued to lead smaller men in all countries to imitate its manner without being able to reproduce its spirit. Hence innumerable affectations and mannerisms.

Greek: the English equivalent of Græci, the name by which the Romans designated the people who called themselves Hellenes,  after a mythic ancestor, Hellen. Their territory, which comprised a portion of the mainland (Thessaly and Epirus), the Isthmus of Corinth, and the peninsula of the Peloponnesus and adjacent islands, was known to themselves as Hellas,  to the Romans as Græcia, hence Greece.

Half-tone: a method of photographic reproduction by which it is possible to render mechanically not only the extreme darks and lights of a picture, but also the intermediate tones; hence the name. A picture or a photograph of it is set up before the camera and photographed through an intervening glass screen, upon which a series of parallel lines, vertical and horizontal, very close together, have been graved. The effect of this is to split up the impression upon the negative into innumerable pin-point dots. The negative is then laid over a copper plate which has been covered with a sensitized film, and is exposed to light in the usual way of making a print. Where the negative is black (that is to say, in the lightest parts of the original or final picture), the light does not penetrate through, and therefore the film remains intact, but in the successively less dark parts of the negative (which in the positive are represented by the successively less light parts of the picture), the light in varying degrees disintegrates the film. Consequently, when the plate is plunged into a bath of acid, only these portions are bitten into in their varying intensity. The result is a plate bristling with minute pin-points biggest in the darkest parts, smaller in those less dark, and according to their size is the amount of ink which they receive from the ink-roller as it passes over the plate. Similarly, when the paper passes over the plate it receives its darkest impressions from the biggest points and varying degrees of less dark from the smaller points. This is the process used in the illustrations of this book, and the pin-points, if not visible to the eye, may readily be detected through a magnifying-glass.

Harmony: an arrangement of diversities into a unity of effect, so as to produce an impression of completeness and perfection; e.g., a harmony of lines, a color-harmony.  It is to be noted that the impression is complete. Where a painter uses color, as many do, only to increase the resemblance to real objects, the tints could, as it were, be shuffled like a pack of cards, without impairing the completeness of the whole. But if the painter is a colorist (q.v. ) and plays with color as a musician does with notes, then the least alteration, such as the subsequent fading out of parts of the picture, disturbs the balance and unity of the color-composition as much as if notes in a musical composition should be dropped out or transposed.

Hellas, Hellenic. See Greek.

Heroic: relating to something larger than life; e.g., a statue of heroic size.  Hence something presumed to be nobler than ordinary experience; e.g., Poussin's heroic treatment of the human, figure, Claude's heroic landscapes.  Accordingly, it is used as a synonym for Classic  (q.v. ).

Hole in the wall: a term used in connection with mural painting  (q.v. ). It implies that the painting, instead of preserving the impression of being upon a flat, solid surface, makes one feel as if one were looking through an opening to some scene beyond; we say of such that it makes a hole in the wall.

Ideal: (1) that quality in a picture which represents a mental or spiritual idea embodied in the external form: cf. Titian's Man with the Glove  (127); (2) the assembling into one single representation of the qualities of perfection which appear separately in many individuals: e.g., an ideal treatment of the human figure, an ideal landscape.

Imagination: the faculty of picturing the universal in terms of the particular. Boecklin, for example, in his Isle of the Dead  (365 et seq.), while adhering to the facts of an island and a boat approaching it, makes one realize the vastness of the infinite soul into which the atom of soul is received.

Impressionism: the faculty possessed by some painters, notably Velasquez, of receiving an immediate and vivid impression of a subject in all its salient features, and of retaining the same keenly in his mind, while he painted, so that the rendering of it produces upon ourselves a similarly immediate and irresistibly vivid impression. Such is the immediate vividness of Velasquez's Maids of Honor,  that Gautier summed up his admiration of its realism of appearance by exclaiming, "Where is the picture?" (179)

Infinite: our world with countless others swims in an ocean of ether, the limits of which extend beyond our powers of comprehension. Human life is like children paddling in the shallow water of an ocean that stretches away and loses itself upon an unattainable horizou. Some artists—Corot, for example, in his skies—suggest that what he shows us is a part of this infinity. It is this suggestion of the infinite or universal, which appears in the works of all artists who make a powerful appeal to the imagination, and is a quality that painting may share with poetry and music.

Kokoro: a Japanese term to express the life-movement of the universal spirit, temporarily manifested in impermanent matter  (472).

Kokoromochi: the expression of kokoro,  without which a picture is not a work of art.

Legion of Honor: a French military and civil order of merit, instituted in 1802 by Napoleon I. It consists of several ranks: grand officers, grand crosses, commanders, and knights.

Light and shade. See Chiaroscuro.

Local color: the prevailing color which belongs to an object, irrespective of the variations produced in it by light and shade, and by the reflections of neighboring colors (191, 406).

Luminarists: a term first used in this country by Professor John C. Van Dyke as a substitute for the name impressionists, to designate Manet and his followers, sluice their chief motive was the study and rendering of light.

Medium: (1) the particular method of representation employed by the artist; e.g., painting, engraving, etching, etc.; (2) the material or tool so employed: e.g., oil-paints, water-colors, the burin, needle, etc.; (3) the liquid in which the color ingredient is dissolved: e.g., oil, water, or water mixed with a glutinous substance.

Monumental: having qualities suggestive of structural grandeur and permanence, so as to be conspicuously impressive, as a monument is; e.g., a monumental statue, a monumental composition.

Mural painting or decoration: a painting on a wall;  one, however, that is not merely applied to the wall or to sonic other surface space of a building, but is so planned as to become an integral element of the architectural design (426 at seq.).

Naïve (ni-eve'), French: artless, unaffectedly simple.

Naïvete (ni-eve-tay'), French: the quality of artlessness and of unaffected simplicity, as of the child-mind.

Naturalistic: pertaining to or concerned with the study of nature's appearances.

Nature: from the artist's standpoint, comprises the external appearances of all things.

Neutral: neither black, which is the equivalent of darkness, nor white, the equivalent of light, but the intermediate gray. Thus a neutral tint is one with a strong infusion of gray; e.g., neutral green  = a grayish green. So red may be neutralized  into a warm gray, blue into a cool gray, and yellow into drab. Similarly, a neutral tone  (q.v. (1)) is applied to a color the luminosity of which is neither low nor bright, but intermediate like the gray of dawn. In this respect we may speak of a picture as being of warm or of cool neutral tones.

New Learning, the: (1) the knowledge of Greek literature, diffused by the Greek scholars, who became scattered over Europe after Constantinople had been taken by the Turks in 1453; (2) the commencement of the scientific spirit of inquiry, resulting from the teaching of Copernicus (1473-1543) that the sun was a fixed body and that the earth as well as the other planets moved round it.

Objective: of or belonging to the object studied; opposed to Subjective —of or belonging to the mind of the subject who studies: e.g., the objective point of view,  directed toward the study of what the artist perceives in the object, unbiased by any feelings of his own (130, 289). Cf. Subjective.

Pagan: Latin paganus;  literally, a dweller in a pagus (village), a rustic. These were the last to be reached by the spread of Christianity, so that the early Christians of the Roman Empire used pagan as a general term for heathen, or idol-worshipers. In our own time we rather use it, free of any religious significance, to describe that tendency in the Italian Renaksance which resulted from the study of the antique marbles and of Greek literature. Once more, though without any belief in them, the artists and poets revived the ancient myths, and joyed in imagining a young world, in which the forces of nature were visibly embodied; wherein Pan sported with fauns and satyrs, and the countryside was thronged with nymphs: Dreads traversing the mountain slopes, Dryads and Hamadryads threading the groves, and Naiads hovering in the mist of streams and fountains, while Tritons and Nereids frolicked in the ocean (143).

Painter's painter: a studio-term used to signify that such and such a painter, because he cares little for the subject of his picture as compared with the technical problems of painting, and in solving the latter displays unusual skill and facility of brushwork, is likely not to interest the general public and can be properly appreciated only by his fellow-painters (404).

Paintiness, painty: qualities in a picture that obtrude on us a consciousness of paint; so that the painter seems to have been interested in the paint for its own sake, rather than as a means only of representing truth of appearances.

Particular, opposed to Universal  (q.v. ): of or belonging to the individual, the temporary, and the local.

Personal equation: an error common to all the observations made by some one person; especially in noting the exact moment of transit of a star across the thread of his telescope. Hence, in a general sense, the particular, personal impression produced upon the eyes and mind of each individual, as a result of his peculiar qualities of eyesight, and of mind, temperament, and experience.

Perspective: the act or result of representing on a plane surface the third dimension of depth or distance; so that the objects in the picture may be made to appear at varying distances from the eye and to occupy varying planes in the distance. This may be accomplished: (l) by decreasing the size of objects in proportion to their distance from the fixed point of sight  of the artist, and by making all lines which go back from it converge toward an imaginary vanishing-point,  determined upon by the artist either inside or outside of the limits of his canvas. Such, in brief, is lineal perspective. Atmospheric perspective, on the other hand, is obtained by the artist noting and rendering accurately the diversities in the amount of light contained, respectively, in all the colors of the objects, and the variations effected in the local colors  (q.v. ) by the intervening planes of atmosphere  (q.v. ) (190, 191).

Pictorial: having qualities that properly and exclusively belong to a picture. It cannot be too often stated that a picture in the true sense of the term is much more than a mere representation of facts and objects. It is a completely independent method of arousing the esthetic sensations. While in poetry the total impression reaches us by degrees, a picture flashes it upon our consciousness at once; while the sculptor is confined to form and to such color as light and shade may suggest, the painter has at his disposal the whole gamut of color: moreover, he can represent his figures in all the charm and added force of their surroundings; can choose his own manner of lighting, and invest his subject with the magic of atmosphere. When he recognizes in line and form and color, tone, light, and atmosphere, a wealth of opportunity that belongs only to his particular art, and relies mainly upon these to impress us, we speak of the pictorial quality of his work.

Pigment, or paint: the coloring ingredient mixed in a medium of oil or water.

Placing: the act of making every object in a picture duly occupy its proper place in the perspective, and of giving it a just amount of distinctness or indistinctness according to its distance from the front.

Pointilliste: a method of laying the paint on the canvas, originated by Seurat and developed by Monet. Instead of the colors being blended on the palette, they are laid on the canvas pure, in minute points, or dots, or stipples, the eye of the spectatorbeing relied upon to blend them (460, 461, 464).

Polder: Dutch word for pasture-lands.

Quality: that which gives a thing distinction or characteristic charm. E.g., observe the quality in that wave;  it has been painted in such a way as to show that the painter comprehended its structure and movement and has appreciated the subtleties of its color and of the effects of direct, reflected, and refracted light.

Realist: in painting, one whose attitude of mind, being purely objective, leads him to be satisfied to depict objects as they appear to exist, independently of personal bias or of any attempt to idealize.

Rhythm: in a composition, the harmonious repetition of parts winch are related mutually to one another as well as to the whole. Thus in Sargent's Frieze of the Prophets  there is a rhythm of form or rhythmic flow of lines and forms, following one another with that general resemblance and individual difference which characterize the flow of ocean waves.

Romantic: painters or writers; those whose motive is to idealize faets so that they may be a means of expressing and arousing emotions.

Scheme of color, or color-scheme: a systematic arrangement of the colors in a picture with the intention of producing a harmonious completeness of effect. It corresponds to the arrangement of notes in a harmony of sound, and, like it, would be disturbed by the displacement or loss of any of the individual notes.

Selection: a principle of composition and drawing whereby the artist selects from the mass of possible details such as are essential to the expression of his purpose (99 et seq.). See Arrangement.

Sentiment: in a work of art, the expression of the feeling which the artist conceives toward his subject.

Simplification: a principle of composition and drawing whereby the artist reduces the representation of his subject to its simplest essential expression: (1) either, as in Millet's drawings, to enforce the essentials of the figure and the gesture and action of it; or (2), as in Puvis's mural paintings, that they may not be too obtrusive and so distract attention from the architecture.

Subjective, opposed to Objective  (q.v. ): of or belonging to the mind of the subject who studies and represents an object ; e.g., the subjective point of view,  which leads the artist to care less about representing the appearance of the object than about making his representation express sonic mood or feeling of his own (130, 259).

Subtle: literally, fine-woven, like a spider's web; hence involving tine discriminations: e.g., a subtle rendering of values,  in which the delicate differences in the quantities of light have been very sensitively noted; a subtle color-scheme,  in which there is an absence of strong contrasts and instead a play upon colors only slightly different in tone (q.v.); a subtle conception,  one distinguished by intricacy of motive and delicate shades of thought.

Suggestion, suggestive: opposed to Obvious  (1) in method, (2) in motive. Sargent's portraits, for example, represent the obvious appearances of his subjects, but with a manner of brushwork entirely the reverse of obvious, conveying an impression of reality not by detailed imitation but by a summary of masterly suggestions. Leonardo's method, on the other hand, was much more obvious, yet his Monna Lisa  eludes our clear comprehension, and subtly stimulates the imagination. In the third place, Whistler's Portrait of the Artist's Mother  is an example of suggestiveness to the imagination as regards both method and motive.

Symphony: literally, a harmonious blending of vocal or instrumental sounds; hence a blending of colors that appeals to the sensuous imagination: e.g., a symphony in gray, a symphony in silver and blue.

Synthesis, opposed to Analysis  (q.v. ): literally, the arrangement of different parts into a whole; hence the process by which an artist, having analyzed his subject and discovered its essential characteristics, makes a stumnary of these in such is way as to suggest the fundamental characteristics. "I have been reproached," said Millet, "for not observing the detail;  I see it, but I prefer to construct the synthesis,  which, as an artistic effort, is higher and more robust" (251).

Tactile imagination: "the imagined sensation of touch"; a term originated by Mr. Bernard Berenson. "Psychology," he writes, "has ascertained that sight alone gives us no accurate sense of the third dimension. In our infancy, long before we are conscious of the process, the sense of touch, helped on by muscular sensation of movement, teaches us to appreciate depth, the third dimension, both in objects and in space. . . . The essential in the art of painting is somehow to stimulate our consciousness of tactile values, so that the picture shall have at least as much power as the object represented to appeal to our tactile imagination."

Technic, or technique: the principles and practice of artistic craftsmanship.

Temperament: the individual temper, mental constitution, and disposition of a person; hence, in a general way, a person's particular bias of feeling or peculiar make-up of nervous sensibility. When an artist, as most modern ones of poetic or imaginative tendency do, betrays this peculiar bias of feeling in his work, he is spoken of as a temperamental artist,  and his work, as being largely influenced by temperament.

Texture: the surface of an object, represented in such a way that the substance of which it is composed is made to appear real to the eye, and that through our tactile imagination  (q.v. ) we may have an imagined sensation of the pleasure of its feel to the touch.

Tone: (1) the degree of luminosity in color; e.g., a low-toned picture,  in which there is a prevailing absence of luminosity; (2) the intensity or depth of a tint: e.g., a deep tone of red, a delicate tone of gray;  (3) the existence in a picture of a prevailing color: e.g., a tonal arrangement,  signifying that, although many colors are introduced, we are made to feel that they are subsidiary to one prevailing color.

Type: literally, one of a group of objects that embodies the characteristics of the whole group to which it belongs. Hence we speak of The Sower  by Millet as having the significance of a type or as being typal in character, because it summarizes the actions and gestures which more or less characterize the operations of all sowers, who sprinkle the seed as they stride over the soil.

Universal, opposed to Particular  (q.v. ): the quality in a picture which makes us look beyond the personal, local, or temporary significance to a significance limited only by the extent of our experience and imagination.

Value: the quantity of light contained in the color of an object at of parts of the same. Thus a gown, the local color  (q.v. ) of which is pink, will show diversified tones  (q.v. ) of pink, according to the amount of light on the exposed parts and the amount of less light in the channels of the folds; and by representing these values accurately the painter without the use of shadow will obtain an effect of modeling. Cf. Manet's Girl with a Parrot,  412, 417. Again, a field, the local color of which is green, will show grayer and grayer green as it recedes from the eye, owing to the neutralizing (see Xeittral) effect of the successive planes of intervening atmosphere. By rendering accurately the values of these greens a painter may suggest distance and atmospheric perspective  (q.v. ).